India is a country with multiple groups, religions, cultures and languages. It has always been a welcoming country to all varieties of people and the people who are here integrate with new people into their own ones. But as the multiple groups living on the same land there will be tensions or conflicts which may be minor or major between them, due to their basic differences and to know how this conflict can be reduced in between these different groups is very important factor for the prosperity of the country.
Here, the socio-psychological aspects of intergroup relations and social tensions in India is discussed in the broader prescriptive of historical, demographic and economic factors.
Intergroup relations in India should be examined against the background and perspectives of social demography, poverty and economic inequality and psychological factors such as attitudes and prejudices.
Social Demography: Religion, caste and ethnicity (tribal and non-tribal) are, by ·far, the most important factors of social demography in India influencing intergroup relations and social tensions. The influence of each of these factors is as follows:
Hindus (82.64%), Muslims (11.35%), Christians (2.43%) and Sikhs (1.97%) I . -constitute the main religious group in India. The overall figures of the religious groups in India hide several important points.
i) Despite the majority of Hindus in the country as a whole, they are out numbered by Muslims in Jammu and Kashmir (64.19%), by Sikhs in Punjab (60.17%) and by Christians in Nagaland (80.19%) and Mizoram ( 83.80% ). Significantly, anti-Indians separatist movements and emerged in these states with sensitive international borders.
ii) Though Muslims constitute only 11.35%of the total Indian population, there· proportion is much higher in several terms (Muslim India, 1983). In 37 cities, scattered in different parts of the countries, Muslim constitute more than 20% of the local population. It has been suggested that a region, particularly in a urban area ·with Muslim minority population ranging between 20 to 40% of the total population, seems more prone to disturbances than other regions. (Engineer, 1984; G . Krishna, 1985; Sexana, 1984).
iii) Demographic data, have reported a higher fertility rate among Muslims in all social categories. The Hindu communal organizations have explained the high fertility rate of Muslims by their non adoption of birth control methods, custom of polygamy, and their conscious determination to increase their population. (Secular democracy, February,1982).
Hindu-Muslim relationship and social tension in India
Because of historical reasons, the hindu-muslim relationship has been the major source of social tension in India culminating in the partition of the country . after half a century and the partition of the country it continues to be a major source of social tension in India.
The hindu muslim relationship in India is influenced by the lingering memories of the partition which was overwhelmingly supported by the muslims (1983), and this relation continues to be influenced by Indo-Pak relationship.
Religion, which divides humanity into narrow exclusive categories, simply and squarely remains the most important barrier to secularism in India ( A.K. Singh, 1970).
Apart from the hindu muslim relationship being a source there are new sources of tensions that have emerged in contemporary India, most important of which are based on caste and ethnicity, reflecting the changed political and economic situation in a country, particularly in rural India.
Next to religion, caste and tribe are the true other important basis of social stratification in Indian society. The scheduled castes (1()%) and the scheduled tribes (8%) constitute about one quarter of the total Indian population. The schedule castes constitute a sizable percentage of population in Andhra Pradesh (24.62), Bihar (14.51), Haryana (19.07), Himachal Pradesh (24.62), Karnataka (15.07), Kerala(l0.02), Madhya Pradesh (14.10), Orissa (14.66), Punjab(26.87), Rajasthan (17.04), Tamilnadu (18.35), Tripura ( 15.12), Uttar Pradesh (21.16), West Bengal (21.99), Chandigarh (14.09), Delhi (18.03) & Pondicherry ( 15.99),. The schedule tribes constitute a sizable percentage of the population in Gujarath (14.22), Madhya Pradesh ( 22.97), Manipur (27.30), Meghalaya (80.58), Nagaland (83.99),0rissa (22.43),Rajasthan (12.21), Sikkhim (23.27), Tripura (28.44), Andaman and Nicobar islands ·(11.85). Arunachal Pradesh (69.82), Dadra and Nagar haveli (78.82), Lakshadeep {93.82)and Mizoram ( 93.55).
There are about 427 tribal communities. The most important in terms of numerical strengths are the Gonds of Madhya Pradesh, the Bhils of Rajasthan, and the Santhals of Bihar and West Bengal. The tribal languages belong to autistic, Tibeto-Chinese, Dravidian and Indo-Aryan families. Tribal have been traditionally out side the hindu caste system despite their adherence to Hinduism. There has been the process of assimilation and absorption of the tribal communities within the Hindu fold, primarily at the lower strata of the caste hierarchy.
Since independence, the constitution of India has provided certain protective measures for the welfare of schedule castes and tribes these include representation in the parliament and state legislatures (15% and 7% seats for SC & ST respectively provision for their social, educational, and economic development including reservations in government services(15% & 7% for SC & ST respectively). A special post of commissioner of schedule caste and tribes has been created whose report on the status of schedule castes and tribes is presented to parliament annually.
There is vast anthropological, historical, sociological, and political literature on caste and tribe. Here, broad trends in literature relevant to the discussion of caste and tribe as factors of social tension in India are identified.
Chronologically, the literature can be classified into two broad categories:
(a) Pre independence and early post independence period
(b) Recent studies from the 1970s onwards.
This is however a loose categories which ignores some overlap but it clearly indicates the significant point that caste as. a source of tension and conflict has very importantly emerged in more recent years.
a) Pre-independence and early Post-independence period: Two important features of the first phase, that is, during the pre-independence and early post independence period, of studies on caste and ethnicity were that (i) they describe their evolution, structure, and functions, and (ii) they described social change scheduled castes and tribes within the genera) frame work of the Hindu social structure.
Srinivas has tried to explain social mobility among the lower castes using the concept of sanskritization which he has described as:
"The process by which a low" Hindu caste, or a tribal or other group, changes its customs, ritual, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently, "twice born" caste."
The characteristic feature of sanskritization is that it is a change with continuity. In fact, the theme of continuity and change has been very crucial in the discussion of the caste system in India. Ishwaran (1970) has emphasized this theme in his book ' change and continuity in Indian villages'. Pandey has received the literature on this theme in his paper" continuity and change in caste system in rural India"(1983 ). He has concluded that :caste exists despite all changes that have taken place. Perhaps, whatever changes are, they are only in non-essential, peripheral areas.
The literature on sanskritization, concern with continuity and change, describes the aspiration of the lower castes who perceive the upper castes as their differential reference group. It reflects the desire of acculturation and assimilation.
But, caste, which attempted to absorb the tribes within its flexible framework, is no longer a model based on social co-operation, which many earlier writers had believed it to be. In fact, Srinivas(1960) has argued that modernization has increased caste solidarity, as manifested in the development of cast banks, hostels, co-operatives, marriage halls, conferences, and journals. Caste associations have been interpreted as democratic interest groups for socio-economic improvement through political mobilization. It has been suggested that though the caste system is no longer prevalent, yet caste exists (Pocock, 1957).
The original four varnas (castes), out of which numerous jatis (sub castes) emerged in the historical evolution, or not complimentary to each other. They are clearly antagonistic and are confronting each other in power and economic competition. In face there is evidence that even in ancient India there were conflicts between castes, particularly between Brahmins and Kshatriyas, symbolizing the conflicts between religious and secular powers.
b) Recent studies from the 1970s onwards :
Tension and conflicts in rural India have been brewing for a long time . in recent years, the simmering and flickering flame has become a ranging fire.
Interestingly the Green Revolution which was started in 1970s has increased in social tension in rural India. Small farmers with inadequate resources find that they are unable to adopt to new methods of modern agriculture. Economic disparities between small and big farmers have increased, the farmer being pushed out of the agricultural sector. This has substantiated by the evaluation of the GreeG Revolution between 1967-68 and 1971-72 in Punjab & Rajasthan (Bapna,l973; Kahlon and G. Singh, 1973a, 1973b).
The social discontent in the tribal community, which is predominantly rural, is long standing, erupting intermittently in violent protests, rebellious, and up springs. this is reflected in the churai movement between 1795-1800, the kol insurrection during 183132, the Bhumij's revolt during 1932-33 and the Birsa movement between 1874-1901.
M.P.Singh (l979) in his paper, "political arrival", has listed the following main trends in the recent caste conflicts in India:
1. In most conflicts Harijans have been the sufferers.
2. Conflicts have a geographical scatter covering the entire couGtry, largely rural India.
3. Though caste conflicts are still between the top and bottom strata, there have been increasingly greater number of conflicts between middle peasant castes and harijans.
4. The earlier ambivalence of identity, reflected in sanskritization, religious conversion,
and migration to the cities, has been teplaced by aggresstve assertion of the harijan identity.
5. The earlier horizontal pattern of political conflict between major religious groups and certain upper castes of the same socio-economic status has given way to vertical political confrontation between different castes within the hierarchial Hindu society.
The review of literature on caste has shown a definite qualitative change in the focus, concern and perspective of social scientist reflecting changed social reality. Earlier scholars were concerned with "concepts and methods in the study of caste". (Mandelbaum, 1959) and the essence and reality of the caste system. They studied the Jajmani system ( W.Wiser and C. Wiser,1971) in the changing rural class structure. And the acculturation of caste and sanskritization have, been the most fertile research areas.
Recent years the perspective on caste and ethnicity has become less. "Academic". The economic and political factors associated with caste and ethnicity have assumed greater visibility and acceptability;the religious factors are no longer in the focus.
The caste system in India has been a subtle and clever socio-religious camouflage to safe guard the politico-economic interest of the elite.the new emerging secular factors in Indian society such as education inculcating, rationality, industrialization, urbanization, increasing geo graphical mobility. and thereby breaking caste-occupation linkage, democracy with adult franchise, creating political consciousness permitted with social equality and justice, and realization of the political strength of the masses have ripped through the age old religious smoke screen of the caste system.
Now, there is an increasing realization that caste and ethnicity per se less important than the economic conditions. The lower castes are being opposed and suppressed not because they are askina for a higher ritual position in caste hierarchy as was case in the sanskritization process, rather the hostilities between middle, upper/middle castes and scheduled castes and tribes are largely due to economic factors (K.L.Sharma, 1979).
Poverty and economic inequality in India produce economic competitions and intergroup rivalries. This is accentuated by the growing political consciousness in the hitherto exploited and discriminated groups. The poor among the upper castes also experiences sense of strong resentment towards the reservation policy particularly for the OBCs. (other backward castes).
India, today, sits on it social volcano which has been erupting frequently endangering the stability and progress of the country. Intergroup relations are becoming increasingly embittered leading to a growing number of violent conflicts.
In the present unit, the influence of socio-economic factors on intergroup relations is discussed with relevant studies.
First, the influence on the religion on conflicts is studied. There are different religious . groups in India with various compositions. Among all religions, Hindus are in majority, next religious group being the Muslims and the conflicts between Hindus and Muslims due to their differences in culture and customs as become major cause of social tension in India.
Next to religion, is caste and ethnicity factors which are the factors determining the intergroup relations in India. In the present chapter the broad trends in literature relevant to the discussion of caste and tribe the factors of social tension in Indian society have been discussed. And this literature covers two chronological categories
(a) Pre independence and earlypost independence period and
(b) recent studies from 1970s onward
The review of literature on caste as shown a definite quantitative change in the focus, concern and. perspective of social scientists reflecting the changed social reality. Earlier scholars were concerned with "Concepts and methods in the study of caste". The concepts being sanskritization, modernization etc. and in recent years the perspectives on caste and ethnicity have become less "academic" .the economic and political factors associated with caste and ethnicity have assumed greater visibility and acceptance.
And lastly, the importance of economic factors in conflicts between religious and caste groups was identified and discussed.
Here, the socio-psychological aspects of intergroup relations and social tensions in India is discussed in the broader prescriptive of historical, demographic and economic factors.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF INTERGROUP RELATIONS IN INDIA
Intergroup relations in India should be examined against the background and perspectives of social demography, poverty and economic inequality and psychological factors such as attitudes and prejudices.
Social Demography: Religion, caste and ethnicity (tribal and non-tribal) are, by ·far, the most important factors of social demography in India influencing intergroup relations and social tensions. The influence of each of these factors is as follows:
RELIGION AND SOCIAL TENSION
Hindus (82.64%), Muslims (11.35%), Christians (2.43%) and Sikhs (1.97%) I . -constitute the main religious group in India. The overall figures of the religious groups in India hide several important points.
i) Despite the majority of Hindus in the country as a whole, they are out numbered by Muslims in Jammu and Kashmir (64.19%), by Sikhs in Punjab (60.17%) and by Christians in Nagaland (80.19%) and Mizoram ( 83.80% ). Significantly, anti-Indians separatist movements and emerged in these states with sensitive international borders.
ii) Though Muslims constitute only 11.35%of the total Indian population, there· proportion is much higher in several terms (Muslim India, 1983). In 37 cities, scattered in different parts of the countries, Muslim constitute more than 20% of the local population. It has been suggested that a region, particularly in a urban area ·with Muslim minority population ranging between 20 to 40% of the total population, seems more prone to disturbances than other regions. (Engineer, 1984; G . Krishna, 1985; Sexana, 1984).
iii) Demographic data, have reported a higher fertility rate among Muslims in all social categories. The Hindu communal organizations have explained the high fertility rate of Muslims by their non adoption of birth control methods, custom of polygamy, and their conscious determination to increase their population. (Secular democracy, February,1982).
Hindu-Muslim relationship and social tension in India
Because of historical reasons, the hindu-muslim relationship has been the major source of social tension in India culminating in the partition of the country . after half a century and the partition of the country it continues to be a major source of social tension in India.
The hindu muslim relationship in India is influenced by the lingering memories of the partition which was overwhelmingly supported by the muslims (1983), and this relation continues to be influenced by Indo-Pak relationship.
Religion, which divides humanity into narrow exclusive categories, simply and squarely remains the most important barrier to secularism in India ( A.K. Singh, 1970).
Apart from the hindu muslim relationship being a source there are new sources of tensions that have emerged in contemporary India, most important of which are based on caste and ethnicity, reflecting the changed political and economic situation in a country, particularly in rural India.
CASTE ETHNICITY AND SOCIAL TENSION
Next to religion, caste and tribe are the true other important basis of social stratification in Indian society. The scheduled castes (1()%) and the scheduled tribes (8%) constitute about one quarter of the total Indian population. The schedule castes constitute a sizable percentage of population in Andhra Pradesh (24.62), Bihar (14.51), Haryana (19.07), Himachal Pradesh (24.62), Karnataka (15.07), Kerala(l0.02), Madhya Pradesh (14.10), Orissa (14.66), Punjab(26.87), Rajasthan (17.04), Tamilnadu (18.35), Tripura ( 15.12), Uttar Pradesh (21.16), West Bengal (21.99), Chandigarh (14.09), Delhi (18.03) & Pondicherry ( 15.99),. The schedule tribes constitute a sizable percentage of the population in Gujarath (14.22), Madhya Pradesh ( 22.97), Manipur (27.30), Meghalaya (80.58), Nagaland (83.99),0rissa (22.43),Rajasthan (12.21), Sikkhim (23.27), Tripura (28.44), Andaman and Nicobar islands ·(11.85). Arunachal Pradesh (69.82), Dadra and Nagar haveli (78.82), Lakshadeep {93.82)and Mizoram ( 93.55).
There are about 427 tribal communities. The most important in terms of numerical strengths are the Gonds of Madhya Pradesh, the Bhils of Rajasthan, and the Santhals of Bihar and West Bengal. The tribal languages belong to autistic, Tibeto-Chinese, Dravidian and Indo-Aryan families. Tribal have been traditionally out side the hindu caste system despite their adherence to Hinduism. There has been the process of assimilation and absorption of the tribal communities within the Hindu fold, primarily at the lower strata of the caste hierarchy.
Since independence, the constitution of India has provided certain protective measures for the welfare of schedule castes and tribes these include representation in the parliament and state legislatures (15% and 7% seats for SC & ST respectively provision for their social, educational, and economic development including reservations in government services(15% & 7% for SC & ST respectively). A special post of commissioner of schedule caste and tribes has been created whose report on the status of schedule castes and tribes is presented to parliament annually.
Literature on cast and tribe:
There is vast anthropological, historical, sociological, and political literature on caste and tribe. Here, broad trends in literature relevant to the discussion of caste and tribe as factors of social tension in India are identified.
Chronologically, the literature can be classified into two broad categories:
(a) Pre independence and early post independence period
(b) Recent studies from the 1970s onwards.
This is however a loose categories which ignores some overlap but it clearly indicates the significant point that caste as. a source of tension and conflict has very importantly emerged in more recent years.
a) Pre-independence and early Post-independence period: Two important features of the first phase, that is, during the pre-independence and early post independence period, of studies on caste and ethnicity were that (i) they describe their evolution, structure, and functions, and (ii) they described social change scheduled castes and tribes within the genera) frame work of the Hindu social structure.
Srinivas has tried to explain social mobility among the lower castes using the concept of sanskritization which he has described as:
"The process by which a low" Hindu caste, or a tribal or other group, changes its customs, ritual, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently, "twice born" caste."
The characteristic feature of sanskritization is that it is a change with continuity. In fact, the theme of continuity and change has been very crucial in the discussion of the caste system in India. Ishwaran (1970) has emphasized this theme in his book ' change and continuity in Indian villages'. Pandey has received the literature on this theme in his paper" continuity and change in caste system in rural India"(1983 ). He has concluded that :caste exists despite all changes that have taken place. Perhaps, whatever changes are, they are only in non-essential, peripheral areas.
The literature on sanskritization, concern with continuity and change, describes the aspiration of the lower castes who perceive the upper castes as their differential reference group. It reflects the desire of acculturation and assimilation.
But, caste, which attempted to absorb the tribes within its flexible framework, is no longer a model based on social co-operation, which many earlier writers had believed it to be. In fact, Srinivas(1960) has argued that modernization has increased caste solidarity, as manifested in the development of cast banks, hostels, co-operatives, marriage halls, conferences, and journals. Caste associations have been interpreted as democratic interest groups for socio-economic improvement through political mobilization. It has been suggested that though the caste system is no longer prevalent, yet caste exists (Pocock, 1957).
The original four varnas (castes), out of which numerous jatis (sub castes) emerged in the historical evolution, or not complimentary to each other. They are clearly antagonistic and are confronting each other in power and economic competition. In face there is evidence that even in ancient India there were conflicts between castes, particularly between Brahmins and Kshatriyas, symbolizing the conflicts between religious and secular powers.
b) Recent studies from the 1970s onwards :
Tension and conflicts in rural India have been brewing for a long time . in recent years, the simmering and flickering flame has become a ranging fire.
Interestingly the Green Revolution which was started in 1970s has increased in social tension in rural India. Small farmers with inadequate resources find that they are unable to adopt to new methods of modern agriculture. Economic disparities between small and big farmers have increased, the farmer being pushed out of the agricultural sector. This has substantiated by the evaluation of the GreeG Revolution between 1967-68 and 1971-72 in Punjab & Rajasthan (Bapna,l973; Kahlon and G. Singh, 1973a, 1973b).
The social discontent in the tribal community, which is predominantly rural, is long standing, erupting intermittently in violent protests, rebellious, and up springs. this is reflected in the churai movement between 1795-1800, the kol insurrection during 183132, the Bhumij's revolt during 1932-33 and the Birsa movement between 1874-1901.
M.P.Singh (l979) in his paper, "political arrival", has listed the following main trends in the recent caste conflicts in India:
1. In most conflicts Harijans have been the sufferers.
2. Conflicts have a geographical scatter covering the entire couGtry, largely rural India.
3. Though caste conflicts are still between the top and bottom strata, there have been increasingly greater number of conflicts between middle peasant castes and harijans.
4. The earlier ambivalence of identity, reflected in sanskritization, religious conversion,
and migration to the cities, has been teplaced by aggresstve assertion of the harijan identity.
5. The earlier horizontal pattern of political conflict between major religious groups and certain upper castes of the same socio-economic status has given way to vertical political confrontation between different castes within the hierarchial Hindu society.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The review of literature on caste has shown a definite qualitative change in the focus, concern and perspective of social scientist reflecting changed social reality. Earlier scholars were concerned with "concepts and methods in the study of caste". (Mandelbaum, 1959) and the essence and reality of the caste system. They studied the Jajmani system ( W.Wiser and C. Wiser,1971) in the changing rural class structure. And the acculturation of caste and sanskritization have, been the most fertile research areas.
Recent years the perspective on caste and ethnicity has become less. "Academic". The economic and political factors associated with caste and ethnicity have assumed greater visibility and acceptability;the religious factors are no longer in the focus.
The caste system in India has been a subtle and clever socio-religious camouflage to safe guard the politico-economic interest of the elite.the new emerging secular factors in Indian society such as education inculcating, rationality, industrialization, urbanization, increasing geo graphical mobility. and thereby breaking caste-occupation linkage, democracy with adult franchise, creating political consciousness permitted with social equality and justice, and realization of the political strength of the masses have ripped through the age old religious smoke screen of the caste system.
Now, there is an increasing realization that caste and ethnicity per se less important than the economic conditions. The lower castes are being opposed and suppressed not because they are askina for a higher ritual position in caste hierarchy as was case in the sanskritization process, rather the hostilities between middle, upper/middle castes and scheduled castes and tribes are largely due to economic factors (K.L.Sharma, 1979).
POVERTY AND ECONOMIC INEQUALITY
Poverty and economic inequality in India produce economic competitions and intergroup rivalries. This is accentuated by the growing political consciousness in the hitherto exploited and discriminated groups. The poor among the upper castes also experiences sense of strong resentment towards the reservation policy particularly for the OBCs. (other backward castes).
India, today, sits on it social volcano which has been erupting frequently endangering the stability and progress of the country. Intergroup relations are becoming increasingly embittered leading to a growing number of violent conflicts.
SUMMARY
In the present unit, the influence of socio-economic factors on intergroup relations is discussed with relevant studies.
First, the influence on the religion on conflicts is studied. There are different religious . groups in India with various compositions. Among all religions, Hindus are in majority, next religious group being the Muslims and the conflicts between Hindus and Muslims due to their differences in culture and customs as become major cause of social tension in India.
Next to religion, is caste and ethnicity factors which are the factors determining the intergroup relations in India. In the present chapter the broad trends in literature relevant to the discussion of caste and tribe the factors of social tension in Indian society have been discussed. And this literature covers two chronological categories
(a) Pre independence and earlypost independence period and
(b) recent studies from 1970s onward
The review of literature on caste as shown a definite quantitative change in the focus, concern and. perspective of social scientists reflecting the changed social reality. Earlier scholars were concerned with "Concepts and methods in the study of caste". The concepts being sanskritization, modernization etc. and in recent years the perspectives on caste and ethnicity have become less "academic" .the economic and political factors associated with caste and ethnicity have assumed greater visibility and acceptance.
And lastly, the importance of economic factors in conflicts between religious and caste groups was identified and discussed.